★ Historical Archive
Federalist Papers
Essays and analysis exploring the arguments Hamilton, Madison, and Jay made for ratifying the Constitution. Foundational reading for understanding the framers' original intent.
85papers on file
In the stacks
- Federalist No. 1 · Part I
General Introduction
Sets the terms of the entire ratification debate.
- Federalist No. 10 · Part II
The Union as a Safeguard Against Domestic Faction and Insurrection
Madison’s most celebrated essay: how a large republic controls the “violence of faction.”
- Federalist No. 51 · Part V
The Structure of the Government Must Furnish the Proper Checks and Balances Between the Different Departments
“If men were angels, no government would be necessary.”
- Federalist No. 78 · Part VIII
The Judiciary Department
The judiciary as the “least dangerous branch” and the roots of judicial review.
- The IntroductionNo. 1 · 1 paper
- The Value of UnionNos. 2–14 · 13 papers
- Failures of the ConfederationNos. 15–22 · 8 papers
- A Government with Real PowerNos. 23–36 · 14 papers
- Republican Principles & StructureNos. 37–51 · 15 papers
- The CongressNos. 52–66 · 15 papers
- The PresidencyNos. 67–77 · 11 papers
- The CourtsNos. 78–83 · 6 papers
- Answering the ObjectionsNos. 84–85 · 2 papers
The Introduction
Hamilton opens the series, framing the stakes of ratification and previewing the whole argument to come.
The Value of Union
Why a united America is safer, stronger and more prosperous than rival confederacies, including Madison’s landmark No. 10 on the violence of faction.
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Concerning Dangers from Foreign Force and Influence
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Concerning Dangers from Foreign Force and Influencecontinued
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Concerning Dangers from Foreign Force and Influencecontinued
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Concerning Dangers from Foreign Force and Influencecontinued
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Concerning Dangers from Dissensions Between the States
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Concerning Dangers from Dissensions Between the Statescontinued
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The Consequences of Hostilities Between the States
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The Utility of the Union as a Safeguard Against Domestic Faction and Insurrection
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The Union as a Safeguard Against Domestic Faction and Insurrectioncontinued
Madison’s most celebrated essay: how a large republic controls the “violence of faction.” - 11Read →
The Utility of the Union in Respect to Commercial Relations and a Navy
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The Utility of the Union In Respect to Revenue
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Advantage of the Union in Respect to Economy in Government
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Objections to the Proposed Constitution From Extent of Territory Answered
Answers the objection that a republic can’t govern a territory as large as America.
Failures of the Confederation
How the Articles of Confederation left the Union too weak to govern, raise revenue or defend itself.
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The Insufficiency of the Present Confederation to Preserve the Union
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The Insufficiency of the Present Confederation to Preserve the Unioncontinued
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The Insufficiency of the Present Confederation to Preserve the Unioncontinued
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The Insufficiency of the Present Confederation to Preserve the Unioncontinued
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The Insufficiency of the Present Confederation to Preserve the Unioncontinued
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The Insufficiency of the Present Confederation to Preserve the Unioncontinued
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Other Defects of the Present Confederation
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Other Defects of the Present Confederationcontinued
A Government with Real Power
The case for an energetic federal government with genuine authority over the common defense and taxation.
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The Necessity of a Government as Energetic as the One Proposed to the Preservation of the Union
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The Powers Necessary to the Common Defense Further Considered
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The Powers Necessary to the Common Defense Further Consideredcontinued
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The Idea of Restraining the Legislative Authority in Regard to the Common Defense Considered
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The Idea of Restraining the Legislative Authority in Regard to the Common Defense Consideredcontinued
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The Idea of Restraining the Legislative Authority in Regard to the Common Defense Consideredcontinued
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Concerning the Militia
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Concerning the General Power of Taxation
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Concerning the General Power of Taxationcontinued
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Concerning the General Power of Taxationcontinued
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Concerning the General Power of Taxationcontinued
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Concerning the General Power of Taxationcontinued
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Concerning the General Power of Taxationcontinued
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Concerning the General Power of Taxationcontinued
Republican Principles & Structure
Federalism, separation of powers and checks and balances, including No. 51 and its famous “if men were angels.”
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Concerning the Difficulties of the Convention in Devising a Proper Form of Government
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, and the Incoherence of the Objections to the New Plan Exposedcontinued
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The Conformity of the Plan to Republican Principles
Defines exactly what makes the proposed government genuinely republican. - 40Read →
The Powers of the Convention to Form a Mixed Government Examined and Sustained
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General View of the Powers Conferred by the Constitution
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The Powers Conferred by the Constitution Further Considered
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The Powers Conferred by the Constitution Further Consideredcontinued
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Restrictions on the Authority of the Several States
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The Alleged Danger From the Powers of the Union to the State Governments Considered
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The Influence of the State and Federal Governments Compared
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The Particular Structure of the New Government and the Distribution of Power Among Its Different Parts
Separation of powers, argued through Montesquieu. - 48Read →
These Departments Should Not Be So Far Separated as to Have No Constitutional Control Over Each Other
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Method of Guarding Against the Encroachments of Any One Department of Government by Appealing to the People Through a Convention
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Periodic Appeals to the People Considered
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The Structure of the Government Must Furnish the Proper Checks and Balances Between the Different Departments
“If men were angels, no government would be necessary.”
The Congress
The design of the House and Senate and the powers entrusted to the legislative branch.
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The House of Representatives
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The House of Representativescontinued
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The Apportionment of Members Among the States
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The Total Number of the House of Representatives
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The Total Number of the House of Representativescontinued
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The Alleged Tendency of the New Plan to Elevate the Few at the Expense of the Many Considered in Connection with Representation
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Objection That The Number of Members Will Not Be Augmented as the Progress of Population Demands Considered
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Concerning the Power of Congress to Regulate the Election of Members
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Concerning the Power of Congress to Regulate the Election of Memberscontinued
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Concerning the Power of Congress to Regulate the Election of Memberscontinued
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The Senate
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The Senate Continued
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The Powers of the Senate
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The Powers of the Senate Continued
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Objections to the Power of the Senate To Set as a Court for Impeachments Further Considered
The Presidency
The case for a single, energetic executive: accountable, but strong enough to govern.
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The Executive Department
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The Mode of Electing the President
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The Real Character of the Executive
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The Executive Department Further Considered
“Energy in the executive”: the case for a single president. - 71Read →
The Duration in Office of the Executive
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, and Re-Eligibility of the Executive Consideredcontinued
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The Provision For The Support of the Executive, and the Veto Power
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The Command of the Military and Naval Forces, and the Pardoning Power of the Executive
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The Treaty Making Power of the Executive
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The Appointing Power of the Executive
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The Appointing Power Continued and Other Powers of the Executive Considered
The Courts
The judiciary as the “least dangerous branch,” and the foundation of judicial review in No. 78.
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The Judiciary Department
The judiciary as the “least dangerous branch” and the roots of judicial review. - 79Read →
The Judiciary Department Continued
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The Powers of the Judiciary
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The Judiciary Continued, and the Distribution of the Judicial Authority
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The Judiciary Continued
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The Judiciary Continued in Relation to Trial by Jury
Answering the Objections
Closing arguments, including Hamilton’s much-debated case that a Bill of Rights was unnecessary.
